diff --git a/include/amduat/asl/core.h b/include/amduat/asl/core.h
index f71cd1b..fb75199 100644
--- a/include/amduat/asl/core.h
+++ b/include/amduat/asl/core.h
@@ -35,16 +35,23 @@ typedef struct {
 amduat_octets_t amduat_octets(const void *data, size_t len);
 bool amduat_octets_eq(amduat_octets_t a, amduat_octets_t b);
 bool amduat_octets_is_empty(amduat_octets_t v);
+/* Clone helpers allocate fresh buffers; free with the matching *_free call. */
+bool amduat_octets_clone(amduat_octets_t src, amduat_octets_t *out);
+void amduat_octets_free(amduat_octets_t *v);
 
 amduat_type_tag_t amduat_type_tag(uint32_t tag_id);
 bool amduat_type_tag_eq(amduat_type_tag_t a, amduat_type_tag_t b);
 
 amduat_reference_t amduat_reference(amduat_hash_id_t hash_id, amduat_octets_t digest);
 bool amduat_reference_eq(amduat_reference_t a, amduat_reference_t b);
+bool amduat_reference_clone(amduat_reference_t src, amduat_reference_t *out);
+void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref);
 
 amduat_artifact_t amduat_artifact(amduat_octets_t bytes);
 amduat_artifact_t amduat_artifact_with_type(amduat_octets_t bytes, amduat_type_tag_t type_tag);
 bool amduat_artifact_eq(amduat_artifact_t a, amduat_artifact_t b);
+bool amduat_artifact_clone(amduat_artifact_t src, amduat_artifact_t *out);
+void amduat_artifact_free(amduat_artifact_t *artifact);
 
 #ifdef __cplusplus
 } /* extern "C" */
diff --git a/src/adapters/tgk_store_fs/tgk_store_fs.c b/src/adapters/tgk_store_fs/tgk_store_fs.c
index 4cc89eb..4cd54be 100644
--- a/src/adapters/tgk_store_fs/tgk_store_fs.c
+++ b/src/adapters/tgk_store_fs/tgk_store_fs.c
@@ -35,34 +35,11 @@ static bool amduat_tgk_store_fs_artifact_eq(amduat_artifact_t a,
 
 static bool amduat_tgk_store_fs_reference_clone(amduat_reference_t src,
                                                 amduat_reference_t *dst) {
-  uint8_t *digest_copy;
-
-  if (dst == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  *dst = amduat_reference(src.hash_id, amduat_octets(NULL, 0));
-  if (src.digest.len == 0) {
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (src.digest.data == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  digest_copy = (uint8_t *)malloc(src.digest.len);
-  if (digest_copy == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  memcpy(digest_copy, src.digest.data, src.digest.len);
-  dst->digest = amduat_octets(digest_copy, src.digest.len);
-  return true;
+  return amduat_reference_clone(src, dst);
 }
 
 static void amduat_tgk_store_fs_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
+  amduat_reference_free(ref);
 }
 
 static void amduat_tgk_store_fs_artifact_bytes_free(
@@ -70,11 +47,7 @@ static void amduat_tgk_store_fs_artifact_bytes_free(
   if (artifact == NULL) {
     return;
   }
-  free((void *)artifact->artifact.bytes.data);
-  artifact->artifact.bytes.data = NULL;
-  artifact->artifact.bytes.len = 0;
-  artifact->artifact.has_type_tag = false;
-  artifact->artifact.type_tag.tag_id = 0;
+  amduat_artifact_free(&artifact->artifact);
 }
 
 static void amduat_tgk_store_fs_artifact_full_free(
diff --git a/src/adapters/tgk_store_mem/tgk_store_mem.c b/src/adapters/tgk_store_mem/tgk_store_mem.c
index 2ef4cb0..eb04bdb 100644
--- a/src/adapters/tgk_store_mem/tgk_store_mem.c
+++ b/src/adapters/tgk_store_mem/tgk_store_mem.c
@@ -226,64 +226,28 @@ static int amduat_tgk_store_mem_edge_cmp(const void *a, const void *b) {
 
 static bool amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_clone(amduat_reference_t src,
                                                  amduat_reference_t *dst) {
-  uint8_t *digest_copy;
-
-  if (dst == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  *dst = amduat_reference(src.hash_id, amduat_octets(NULL, 0));
-  if (src.digest.len == 0) {
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (src.digest.data == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  digest_copy = (uint8_t *)malloc(src.digest.len);
-  if (digest_copy == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  memcpy(digest_copy, src.digest.data, src.digest.len);
-  dst->digest = amduat_octets(digest_copy, src.digest.len);
-  return true;
+  return amduat_reference_clone(src, dst);
 }
 
 static void amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
+  amduat_reference_free(ref);
 }
 
 static bool amduat_tgk_store_mem_artifact_clone(
     amduat_reference_t ref,
     amduat_artifact_t artifact,
     amduat_tgk_store_mem_artifact_t *out) {
-  uint8_t *bytes_copy = NULL;
-
   if (out == NULL) {
     return false;
   }
   memset(out, 0, sizeof(*out));
-  if (!amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_clone(ref, &out->ref)) {
+  if (!amduat_reference_clone(ref, &out->ref)) {
     return false;
   }
-  if (artifact.bytes.len != 0) {
-    if (artifact.bytes.data == NULL) {
-      amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_free(&out->ref);
-      return false;
-    }
-    bytes_copy = (uint8_t *)malloc(artifact.bytes.len);
-    if (bytes_copy == NULL) {
-      amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_free(&out->ref);
-      return false;
-    }
-    memcpy(bytes_copy, artifact.bytes.data, artifact.bytes.len);
+  if (!amduat_artifact_clone(artifact, &out->artifact)) {
+    amduat_reference_free(&out->ref);
+    return false;
   }
-  out->artifact.bytes = amduat_octets(bytes_copy, artifact.bytes.len);
-  out->artifact.has_type_tag = artifact.has_type_tag;
-  out->artifact.type_tag = artifact.type_tag;
   return true;
 }
 
@@ -292,12 +256,8 @@ static void amduat_tgk_store_mem_artifact_free(
   if (artifact == NULL) {
     return;
   }
-  free((void *)artifact->artifact.bytes.data);
-  artifact->artifact.bytes.data = NULL;
-  artifact->artifact.bytes.len = 0;
-  artifact->artifact.has_type_tag = false;
-  artifact->artifact.type_tag.tag_id = 0;
-  amduat_tgk_store_mem_reference_free(&artifact->ref);
+  amduat_artifact_free(&artifact->artifact);
+  amduat_reference_free(&artifact->ref);
 }
 
 static bool amduat_tgk_store_mem_artifact_value_eq(
diff --git a/src/kernel/asl/core.c b/src/kernel/asl/core.c
index 97d20fb..53fdaec 100644
--- a/src/kernel/asl/core.c
+++ b/src/kernel/asl/core.c
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include "amduat/asl/core.h"
 
+#include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
 
 amduat_octets_t amduat_octets(const void *data, size_t len) {
@@ -23,6 +24,37 @@ bool amduat_octets_is_empty(amduat_octets_t v) {
   return v.len == 0;
 }
 
+bool amduat_octets_clone(amduat_octets_t src, amduat_octets_t *out) {
+  uint8_t *copy;
+
+  if (out == NULL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  *out = amduat_octets(NULL, 0u);
+  if (src.len == 0u) {
+    return true;
+  }
+  if (src.data == NULL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  copy = (uint8_t *)malloc(src.len);
+  if (copy == NULL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  memcpy(copy, src.data, src.len);
+  *out = amduat_octets(copy, src.len);
+  return true;
+}
+
+void amduat_octets_free(amduat_octets_t *v) {
+  if (v == NULL) {
+    return;
+  }
+  free((void *)v->data);
+  v->data = NULL;
+  v->len = 0u;
+}
+
 amduat_type_tag_t amduat_type_tag(uint32_t tag_id) {
   amduat_type_tag_t t;
   t.tag_id = tag_id;
@@ -45,6 +77,25 @@ bool amduat_reference_eq(amduat_reference_t a, amduat_reference_t b) {
   return (a.hash_id == b.hash_id) && amduat_octets_eq(a.digest, b.digest);
 }
 
+bool amduat_reference_clone(amduat_reference_t src, amduat_reference_t *out) {
+  if (out == NULL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  *out = amduat_reference(src.hash_id, amduat_octets(NULL, 0u));
+  if (!amduat_octets_clone(src.digest, &out->digest)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
+  if (ref == NULL) {
+    return;
+  }
+  amduat_octets_free(&ref->digest);
+  ref->hash_id = 0u;
+}
+
 amduat_artifact_t amduat_artifact(amduat_octets_t bytes) {
   amduat_artifact_t a;
   a.bytes = bytes;
@@ -74,3 +125,25 @@ bool amduat_artifact_eq(amduat_artifact_t a, amduat_artifact_t b) {
   }
   return amduat_type_tag_eq(a.type_tag, b.type_tag);
 }
+
+bool amduat_artifact_clone(amduat_artifact_t src, amduat_artifact_t *out) {
+  if (out == NULL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  *out = amduat_artifact(amduat_octets(NULL, 0u));
+  if (!amduat_octets_clone(src.bytes, &out->bytes)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  out->has_type_tag = src.has_type_tag;
+  out->type_tag = src.type_tag;
+  return true;
+}
+
+void amduat_artifact_free(amduat_artifact_t *artifact) {
+  if (artifact == NULL) {
+    return;
+  }
+  amduat_octets_free(&artifact->bytes);
+  artifact->has_type_tag = false;
+  artifact->type_tag = amduat_type_tag(0u);
+}
diff --git a/src/kernel/tgk/core.c b/src/kernel/tgk/core.c
index 601e77c..f18602a 100644
--- a/src/kernel/tgk/core.c
+++ b/src/kernel/tgk/core.c
@@ -2,15 +2,6 @@
 
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 bool amduat_tgk_edge_body_has_endpoints(const amduat_tgk_edge_body_t *edge) {
   if (edge == NULL) {
     return false;
diff --git a/src/near_core/asl/artifact_io.c b/src/near_core/asl/artifact_io.c
index bbda87d..859d44f 100644
--- a/src/near_core/asl/artifact_io.c
+++ b/src/near_core/asl/artifact_io.c
@@ -38,12 +38,5 @@ bool amduat_asl_artifact_expect_type_tag(const amduat_artifact_t *artifact,
 }
 
 void amduat_asl_artifact_free(amduat_artifact_t *artifact) {
-  if (artifact == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)artifact->bytes.data);
-  artifact->bytes.data = NULL;
-  artifact->bytes.len = 0u;
-  artifact->has_type_tag = false;
-  artifact->type_tag = amduat_type_tag(0u);
+  amduat_artifact_free(artifact);
 }
diff --git a/src/near_core/asl/ref_io.c b/src/near_core/asl/ref_io.c
index 21333c4..9682e22 100644
--- a/src/near_core/asl/ref_io.c
+++ b/src/near_core/asl/ref_io.c
@@ -8,12 +8,7 @@
 #include <string.h>
 
 static void amduat_asl_ref_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0u;
+  amduat_reference_free(ref);
 }
 
 static bool amduat_asl_ref_decode_hex_bytes(const uint8_t *data,
diff --git a/src/near_core/enc/pel1_result.c b/src/near_core/enc/pel1_result.c
index aacbbb6..b5da471 100644
--- a/src/near_core/enc/pel1_result.c
+++ b/src/near_core/enc/pel1_result.c
@@ -148,15 +148,6 @@ static bool amduat_read_encoded_ref(amduat_cursor_t *cur,
   return true;
 }
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 static void amduat_diagnostic_list_free(amduat_pel_diagnostic_entry_t *entries,
                                         size_t count) {
   size_t i;
diff --git a/src/near_core/enc/pel_trace_dag.c b/src/near_core/enc/pel_trace_dag.c
index 03c5f6d..92eab7a 100644
--- a/src/near_core/enc/pel_trace_dag.c
+++ b/src/near_core/enc/pel_trace_dag.c
@@ -214,15 +214,6 @@ static bool amduat_read_encoded_ref(amduat_cursor_t *cur,
   return true;
 }
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 static void amduat_diagnostic_list_free(amduat_pel_diagnostic_entry_t *entries,
                                         size_t count) {
   size_t i;
diff --git a/src/near_core/enc/tgk1_edge.c b/src/near_core/enc/tgk1_edge.c
index 043b8d1..22056a1 100644
--- a/src/near_core/enc/tgk1_edge.c
+++ b/src/near_core/enc/tgk1_edge.c
@@ -139,15 +139,6 @@ static bool amduat_read_encoded_ref(amduat_cursor_t *cur,
   return true;
 }
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 void amduat_enc_tgk1_edge_free(amduat_tgk_edge_body_t *edge) {
   size_t i;
 
diff --git a/src/pel_stack/queue/queue.c b/src/pel_stack/queue/queue.c
index 16ef833..9ef94c5 100644
--- a/src/pel_stack/queue/queue.c
+++ b/src/pel_stack/queue/queue.c
@@ -167,15 +167,6 @@ static bool amduat_read_encoded_ref(amduat_cursor_t *cur,
   return true;
 }
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 static bool amduat_join_path(const char *base,
                              const char *segment,
                              char **out_path) {
diff --git a/src/pel_stack/surf/surf.c b/src/pel_stack/surf/surf.c
index 98df43f..f9fa773 100644
--- a/src/pel_stack/surf/surf.c
+++ b/src/pel_stack/surf/surf.c
@@ -12,15 +12,6 @@
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
 
-static void amduat_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
-}
-
 void amduat_pel_surf_free_refs(amduat_reference_t *refs, size_t refs_len) {
   size_t i;
 
@@ -37,15 +28,6 @@ void amduat_pel_surf_free_ref(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
   amduat_reference_free(ref);
 }
 
-static void amduat_artifact_free(amduat_artifact_t *artifact) {
-  if (artifact == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)artifact->bytes.data);
-  artifact->bytes.data = NULL;
-  artifact->bytes.len = 0;
-}
-
 static void amduat_init_core_result(amduat_pel_execution_result_value_t *result,
                                     amduat_reference_t scheme_ref,
                                     amduat_pel_execution_status_t status,
diff --git a/src/tgk_stack/prov/prov.c b/src/tgk_stack/prov/prov.c
index dfe7adb..9aaf915 100644
--- a/src/tgk_stack/prov/prov.c
+++ b/src/tgk_stack/prov/prov.c
@@ -17,35 +17,12 @@ typedef struct {
 } amduat_tgk_prov_index_queue_t;
 
 static void amduat_tgk_prov_reference_free(amduat_reference_t *ref) {
-  if (ref == NULL) {
-    return;
-  }
-  free((void *)ref->digest.data);
-  ref->digest.data = NULL;
-  ref->digest.len = 0;
+  amduat_reference_free(ref);
 }
 
 static bool amduat_tgk_prov_reference_clone(amduat_reference_t src,
                                             amduat_reference_t *dst) {
-  uint8_t *digest_copy;
-
-  if (dst == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  *dst = amduat_reference(src.hash_id, amduat_octets(NULL, 0));
-  if (src.digest.len == 0) {
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (src.digest.data == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  digest_copy = (uint8_t *)malloc(src.digest.len);
-  if (digest_copy == NULL) {
-    return false;
-  }
-  memcpy(digest_copy, src.digest.data, src.digest.len);
-  dst->digest = amduat_octets(digest_copy, src.digest.len);
-  return true;
+  return amduat_reference_clone(src, dst);
 }
 
 static int amduat_tgk_prov_octets_cmp(amduat_octets_t a, amduat_octets_t b) {